Temporal dynamics of classroom goal structures in solo- and co-taught mathematics classes

Hans Lehikoinen; Heta Tuominen; Jaana Viljaranta; Pertti Väisänen; Markku Niemivirta

doi:10.31129/LUMAT.13.1.2799

Authors

Hans Lehikoinen School of Applied Educational Science and Teacher Education, University of Eastern Finland, Joensuu, Finland; Special and Inclusive Education, Faculty of Education and Psychology, University of Oulu, Finland https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6256-3341
Heta Tuominen School of Applied Educational Science and Teacher Education, University of Eastern Finland, Joensuu, Finland https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5629-375X
Jaana Viljaranta School of Educational Sciences and Psychology, University of Eastern Finland, Joensuu, Finland https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6169-4008
Pertti Väisänen School of Applied Educational Science and Teacher Education, University of Eastern Finland, Joensuu, Finland
Markku Niemivirta School of Applied Educational Science and Teacher Education, University of Eastern Finland, Joensuu, Finland

DOI:

https://doi.org/10.31129/LUMAT.13.1.2799

Keywords:

mathematics motivation, classroom goal structures, Co-teaching, mathematics teaching

Abstract

While students’ perceptions of classroom goal structure play a key role in student motivation, little is known about how these perceptions change over time, and whether they are influenced by different teaching practices. This study investigated the temporal dynamics of mathematics classroom goal structures over the course of a school year and, importantly, whether these changes were predicted by teaching condition (co-teaching versus solo-teaching). Classroom goal structures were assessed using student surveys administered at the beginning and end of the school year. The co-teaching condition included 70 sixth-grade students in three classes, where mathematics was co-taught by pairs of class teachers and special education teachers. The solo-teaching condition included 76 students in four classes, taught by class teachers. A series of latent change score models demonstrated a concurrent decline in students’ perceptions of classroom performance-approach and -avoidance goal structures. Compared to the solo-taught students, co-taught students’ initial perceptions of mastery goal structures were lower, but the change over time seemed more positive. Overall, these findings shed light on the temporal dynamics of classroom goal structures and demonstrate the potential positive effect of co-teaching on students' perceptions of the mastery goal structure in mathematics.

References

Ames, C. (1992). Classrooms: Goals, structures, and student motivation. Journal of Educational Psychology, 84(3), 261–271. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.84.3.261 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1037//0022-0663.84.3.261

Ames, C., & Archer, J. (1988). Achievement goals in the classroom: Students’ learning strategies and motivation processes. Journal of Educational Psychology, 80(3), 260–267. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.80.3.260 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1037//0022-0663.80.3.260

Anderman, E. M. (2020). Achievement motivation theory: Balancing precision and utility. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 61, 101864. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2020.101864 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2020.101864

Anderman, E. M., & Midgley, C. (1997). Changes in Achievement Goal Orientations, Perceived Academic Competence, and Grades across the Transition to Middle-Level Schools. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 22(3), 269–298. https://doi.org/10.1006/ceps.1996.0926 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1006/ceps.1996.0926

Anderman, E. M., & Patrick, H. (2012). Achievement Goal Theory, Conceptualization of Ability/Intelligence, and Classroom Climate. In S. L. Christenson, A. L. Reschly, & C. Wylie (Eds.), Handbook of Research on Student Engagement (pp. 173–191). Springer US. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4614-2018-7_8 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4614-2018-7_8

Arens, A. K., Becker, M., & Möller, J. (2017). Social and dimensional comparisons in math and verbal test anxiety: Within- and cross-domain relations with achievement and the mediating role of academic self-concept. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 51, 240–252. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2017.08.005 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2017.08.005

Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. W H Freeman/Times Books/ Henry Holt & Co.

Bardach, L., Oczlon, S., Pietschnig, J., & Lüftenegger, M. (2020). Has achievement goal theory been right? A meta-analysis of the relation between goal structures and personal achievement goals. Journal of Educational Psychology, 112(6), 1197–1220. https://doi.org/10.1037/edu0000419 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1037/edu0000419

Blatchford, P., Bassett, P., & Brown, P. (2011). Examining the effect of class size on classroom engagement and teacher–pupil interaction: Differences in relation to pupil prior attainment and primary vs. secondary schools. Learning and Instruction, 21(6),715–730. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.learninstruc.2011.04.001 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.learninstruc.2011.04.001

Bong, M. (2005). Within-grade changes in Korean girls’ motivation and perceptions of the learning environment across domains and achievement levels. Journal of Educational Psychology, 97(4), 656–672. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.97.4.656 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.97.4.656

Brophy, J. (1983). Research on the self-fulfilling prophecy and teacher expectations. Journal of Educational Psychology, 75(5), 631–661. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.75.5.631 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1037//0022-0663.75.5.631

Brühwiler, C., & Blatchford, P. (2011). Effects of class size and adaptive teaching competency on classroom processes and academic outcome. Learning and Instruction, 21(1), 95–108. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.learninstruc.2009.11.004 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.learninstruc.2009.11.004

Carmichael, C., Callingham, R., & Watt, H. M. G. (2017). Classroom motivational environment influences on emotional and cognitive dimensions of student interest in mathematics. ZDM, 49(3), 449–460. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11858-016-0831-7 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11858-016-0831-7

Carroll, C., Patterson, M., Wood, S., Booth, A., Rick, J., & Balain, S. (2007). A conceptual framework for implementation fidelity. Implementation Science, 2(1), 40. https://doi.org/10.1186/1748-5908-2-40 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1186/1748-5908-2-40

Cheung, G. W., & Rensvold, R. B. (2002). Evaluating goodness-of-fit indexes for testing measurement invariance. Structural Equation Modeling: A Multidisciplinary Journal, 9(2), 233–255. https://doi.org/10.1207/S15328007SEM0902_5 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1207/S15328007SEM0902_5

Chestnut, E., Lei, R., Leslie, S.-J., & Cimpian, A. (2018). The Myth That Only Brilliant People Are Good at Math and Its Implications for Diversity. Education Sciences, 8(2), 65. https://doi.org/10.3390/educsci8020065 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/educsci8020065

Colson, T., Xiang, Y., & Smothers, M. (2021). How Professional Development in Co-teaching Impacts Self-Efficacy Among Rural High School Teachers. The Rural Educator, 42(1), 20–31. https://doi.org/10.35608/ruraled.v42i1.897 DOI: https://doi.org/10.35608/ruraled.v42i1.897

Cook, S. C., Mcduffie-Landrum, K. A., Oshita, L., & Cook, B. G. (2017). Co-teaching for students with disabilities: A critical and updated analysis of the empirical literature. In Kauffman, J. & Hallahan, D. (Eds.) Handbook of special education (pp. 233-248). Routledge. DOI: https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315517698-20

Daumiller, M., Fasching, M. S., Steuer, G., Dresel, M., & Dickhäuser, O. (2022). From teachers’ personal achievement goals to students’ perceptions of classroom goal structures: Via student-oriented goals and specific instructional practices. Teaching and Teacher Education, 111, 103617. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tate.2021.103617 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tate.2021.103617

Dijkstra, P., Kuyper, H., van der Werf, G., Buunk, A. P., & van der Zee, Y. G. (2008). Social Comparison in the Classroom: A Review. Review of Educational Research, 78(4), 828–879. https://doi.org/10.3102/0034654308321210 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3102/0034654308321210

Epstein, J. L. (1989). Family structures and student motivation: A developmental perspective. In C. Ames and R. Ames (Eds.), Research on motivation in education (pp. 259–295). Academic Press.

Fast, L. A., Lewis, J. L., Bryant, M. J., Bocian, K. A., Cardullo, R. A., Rettig, M., & Hammond, K. A. (2010). Does math self-efficacy mediate the effect of the perceived classroom environment on standardized math test performance? Journal of Educational Psychology, 102(3), 729–740. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0018863 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1037/a0018863

Fejes, J. B. (2023). Unpacking classroom goal structures based on students’ own words. Social Psychology of Education. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11218-022-09753-z DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11218-022-09753-z

Ferrer, E., & McArdle, J. J. (2010). Longitudinal Modeling of Developmental Changes in Psychological Research. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 19(3), 149–154. https://doi.org/10.1177/0963721410370300 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0963721410370300

Finnish National Board on Research Integrity TENK (2019). The ethical principles of research with human participants and ethical review in the human sciences in Finland. https://tenk.fi/sites/default/files/2021-01/Ethical_review_in_human_sciences_2020.pdf

Fluijt, D., Bakker, C., & Struyf, E. (2016). Team-reflection: The missing link in co-teaching teams. European Journal of Special Needs Education, 31(2), 187–201. https://doi.org/10.1080/08856257.2015.1125690 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/08856257.2015.1125690

Fraser, B. J. and Tobin, K. (1991). Combining qualitative and quantitative methods in classroom environment research. In Fraser, B. J. & Wallberg, H. J. (Eds.) Educational Environments. Evaluation, Antecedents and Consequences (pp. 271-292).

Friend, M. (2008). Co-Teaching: A Simple Solution That Isn’t Simple After All. Journal of Curriculum and Instruction, 2(2), 164. https://doi.org/10.3776/joci.2008.v2n2p9-19 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3776/joci.2008.v2n2p9-19

Friend, M., Cook, L., Hurley-Chamberlain, D., & Shamberger, C. (2010). Co-Teaching: An Illustration of the Complexity of Collaboration in Special Education. Journal of Educational and Psychological Consultation, 20(1), 9–27. https://doi.org/10.1080/10474410903535380 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/10474410903535380

Friend, M. P., & Cook, L. (2013). Interactions: Collaboration skills for school professionals (7th ed.). Pearson.

Gresham, F. M., MacMillan, D. L., Beebe-Frankenberger, M. E., & Bocian, K. M. (2000). Treatment Integrity in Learning Disabilities Intervention Research: Do We Really Know How Treatments Are Implemented? Learning Disabilities Research and Practice, 15(4), 198–205. https://doi.org/10.1207/SLDRP1504_4 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1207/SLDRP1504_4

Gurtner, J.-L., Monnard, I., & Genoud, P. A. (2001). Towards a multilayer model of context and its impact on motivation. In S. Volet & S. Järvelä (Eds.), Motivation in learning contexts: Theoretical advances and methodological implications (pp. 189–208). Pergamon Press.

Guskey, T. R. (2002). Professional Development and Teacher Change. Teachers and Teaching, Theory and Practice, 8(3), 381–391. https://doi.org/10.1080/135406002100000512 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/135406002100000512

Iaconelli, R., & Anderman, E. M. (2021). Classroom goal structures and communication style: The role of teacher immediacy and relevance-making in students’ perceptions of the classroom. Social Psychology of Education, 24(1), 37–58. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11218-021-09609-y DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11218-021-09609-y

Jacobs, J. E., Lanza, S., Osgood, D. W., Eccles, J. S., & Wigfield, A. (2002). Changes in Children’s Self-Competence and Values: Gender and Domain Differences across Grades One through Twelve. Child Development, 73(2), 509–527. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-8624.00421 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-8624.00421

Kaplan, A., Gheen, M., & Midgley, C. (2002a). Classroom goal structure and student disruptive behaviour. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 72(2), 191–211. https://doi.org/10.1348/000709902158847 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1348/000709902158847

Kaplan, A., Middleton, M. J., Urdan, T., & Midgley, C. (2002b). Achievement goals and goal structures. In C. Midgley (Ed.), Goals, goal structures, and patterns of adaptive learning (pp. 21–53). Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Publishers.

King-Sears, M. E., Stefanidis, A., Berkeley, S., & Strogilos, V. (2021). Does co-teaching improve academic achievement for students with disabilities? A meta-analysis. Educational Research Review, 34, 100405. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.edurev.2021.100405

Koskey, K. L. K., Karabenick, S. A., Woolley, M. E., Bonney, C. R., & Dever, B. V. (2010). Cognitive validity of students’ self-reports of classroom mastery goal structure: What students are thinking and why it matters. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 35(4), 254–263. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2010.05.004 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2010.05.004

Lau, S., & Nie, Y. (2008). Interplay between personal goals and classroom goal structures in predicting student outcomes: A multilevel analysis of person-context interactions. Journal of Educational Psychology, 100(1), 15–29. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.100.1.15 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.100.1.15

Lavasani, M. G., Hejazi, E., & Varzaneh, J. Y. (2011). The predicting model of math anxiety: The role of classroom goal structure, self-regulation and math self-efficacy. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences, 15, 557–562. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2011.03.141 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2011.03.141

Lazarides, R., Buchholz, J., & Rubach, C. (2018). Teacher enthusiasm and self-efficacy, student-perceived mastery goal orientation, and student motivation in mathematics classrooms. Teaching and Teacher Education, 69, 1–10. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tate.2017.08.017 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tate.2017.08.017

Lazarides, R., Fauth, B., Gaspard, H., & Göllner, R. (2021). Teacher self-efficacy and enthusiasm: Relations to changes in student-perceived teaching quality at the beginning of secondary education. Learning and Instruction, 73, 101435. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.learninstruc.2020.101435 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.learninstruc.2020.101435

Lochner, W. W., Murawski, W. W., & Daley, J. T. (2019). The effect of co-teaching on student cognitive engagement. Theory & Practice in Rural Education, 9(2), 6-19. https://doi.org/10.3776/tpre.2019.v9n2p6-19 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3776/tpre.2019.v9n2p6-19

Lüftenegger, M., van de Schoot, R., Schober, B., Finsterwald, M., & Spiel, C. (2014). Promotion of students’ mastery goal orientations: Does TARGET work? Educational Psychology, 34(4), 451–469. https://doi.org/10.1080/01443410.2013.814189 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/01443410.2013.814189

Lüftenegger, M., Tran, U. S., Bardach, L., Schober, B., & Spiel, C. (2017). Measuring a Mastery Goal Structure Using the TARGET Framework: Development and Validation of a Classroom Goal Structure Questionnaire. Zeitschrift Für Psychologie, 225(1), 64–75. https://doi.org/10.1027/2151-2604/a000277 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1027/2151-2604/a000277

Madjar, N., Weinstock, M., & Kaplan, A. (2017). Epistemic beliefs and achievement goal orientations: Relations between constructs versus personal profiles. The Journal of Educational Research, 110(1), 32–49. https://doi.org/10.1080/00220671.2015.1034353 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/00220671.2015.1034353

McTigue, E. M., Gourvennec, A. F., & Solheim, O. J. (2022). Key Question for Literacy CO‐TEACHERS: What Possibilities Do We Have Together? The Reading Teacher, 76(2), 176–190. https://doi.org/10.1002/trtr.2121 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/trtr.2121

Michou, A., Mouratidis, A., Lens, W., & Vansteenkiste, M. (2013). Personal and contextual antecedents of achievement goals: Their direct and indirect relations to students’ learning strategies. Learning and Individual Differences, 23, 187–194. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lindif.2012.09.005 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lindif.2012.09.005

Midgley, C. (Ed.). (2002). Goals, goal structures, and patterns of adaptive learning. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Publishers.

Midgley, C., Maehr, M. L., Hruda, L. Z., Anderman, E., Anderman, L., Freeman, K. E., Gheen, M.,Kaplan, A., Kumar, R., Middelton, M. J., Nelson, J., Roeser, R., & Urdan, T. (2000). Manual for the patterns of adaptive learning scales (PALS). University of Michigan.

Midgley, C., & Urdan, T. (2001). Academic Self-Handicapping and Achievement Goals: A Further Examination. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 26(1), 61–75. https://doi.org/10.1006/ceps.2000.1041 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1006/ceps.2000.1041

Middleton, J. A., & Spanias, P. A. (1999). Motivation for Achievement in Mathematics: Findings, Generalizations, and Criticisms of the Research. Journal for Research in Mathematics Education, 30(1), 65. https://doi.org/10.2307/749630 DOI: https://doi.org/10.2307/749630

Murawski, W. W., & Lochner, W. W. (2011). Observing Co-Teaching: What to Ask For, Look For, and Listen For. Intervention in School and Clinic, 46(3), 174–183. https://doi.org/10.1177/1053451210378165 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/1053451210378165

Murayama, K., & Elliot, A. J. (2009). The joint influence of personal achievement goals and classroom goal structures on achievement-relevant outcomes. Journal of Educational Psychology, 101(2), 432–447. https://doi.org/10.1037/a001422 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1037/a0014221

Muthén, L. K., & Muthén, B. (2019). Mplus user's guide (8th ed.). Muthén & Muthén.

Niemivirta, M., Pulkka, A., Tapola, A., & Tuominen, H. (2019). Achievement Goal Orientations: A Person-Oriented Approach. In K. Renninger & S. Hidi (Eds.), The Cambridge Handbook of Motivation and Learning (pp. 566-616). Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/9781316823279.025 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/9781316823279.025

Official Statistics of Finland (OSF) (2021, June 8). Support for learning. Statistics Finland. Retrieved January 10, 2021, from http://www.stat.fi/til/erop/2020/erop_2020_2021-06-08_tie_001_en.html

O’Keefe, P. A., Ben-Eliyahu, A., & Linnenbrink-Garcia, L. (2013). Shaping achievement goal orientations in a mastery-structured environment and concomitant changes in related contingencies of self- worth. Motivation and Emotion, 37(1), 50–64. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11031-012-9293-6 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11031-012-9293-6

Olivier, E., Morin, A. J. S., Plante, I., Archambault, I., & Dupéré, V. (2024). Classroom learning climate profiles: Combining classroom goal structure and social climate to support student school functioning and behavioral adaptation. Journal of Educational Psychology, 116(2), 256–277. https://doi.org/10.1037/edu0000837 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1037/edu0000837

Patrick, H., & Kaplan, A. (2022). Promoting students' growth motivation: Mastery-structured classrooms. In K-A. Allen, M. J. Furlong, D. Vella-Brodrick & S. Suldo (Eds.), Handbook of Positive Psychology in Schools: Supporting Process and Practice (pp. 295–308). Taylor and Francis. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781003013778-24 DOI: https://doi.org/10.4324/9781003013778-23

Patrick, H., & Ryan, A. M. (2008). What Do Students Think About When Evaluating Their Classroom’s Mastery Goal Structure? An Examination of Young Adolescents’ Explanations. The Journal of Experimental Education, 77(2), 99–124. https://doi.org/10.3200/JEXE.77.2.99-124 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3200/JEXE.77.2.99-124

Pekrun, R. (2023). A Control-Value Approach to Affective Growth. In M. Bong, J. Reeve, & S. Kim (Eds.), Motivation Science (1st ed., pp. 328-334). Oxford University PressNew York. https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780197662359.003.0055 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780197662359.003.0055

Porter, T., Catalán Molina, D., Lucas, M., Oberle, C., & Trzesniewski, K. (2022). Classroom environment predicts changes in expressed intellectual humility. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 70, 102081. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2022.102081 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2022.102081

Reddy, R., Rhodes, J. E., & Mulhall, P. (2003). The influence of teacher support on student adjustment in the middle school years: A latent growth curve study. Development and Psychopathology, 15(1), 119–138. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0954579403000075 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/S0954579403000075

Remler, D. K., & Van Ryzin, G. G. (2011). Research methods in practice: Strategies for description and causation. Sage Publications, Inc.

Robinson, K. A. (2023). Motivational climate theory: Disentangling definitions and roles of classroom motivational support, climate, and microclimates. Educational Psychologist, 58(2), 92–110. https://doi.org/10.1080/00461520.2023.2198011 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/00461520.2023.2198011

Rytivaara, A., & Kershner, R. (2012). Co-teaching as a context for teachers’ professional learning and joint knowledge construction. Teaching and Teacher Education, 28(7), 999–1008. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tate.2012.05.006 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tate.2012.05.006

Rytivaara, A., Pulkkinen, J., & Palmu, I. (2021). Learning about students in co-teaching teams. International Journal of Inclusive Education, 1–16. https://doi.org/10.1080/13603116.2021.1878299 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/13603116.2021.1878299

Rönn-Liljenfeldt, M., Sundqvist, C., Ström, K., & Korhonen, J. (2023). Students’ perceptions of co-teaching in the general classroom. European Journal of Special Needs Education, 39(2), 311–326. https://doi.org/10.1080/08856257.2023.2215008 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/08856257.2023.2215008

Schwinger, M., & Stiensmeier-Pelster, J. (2011). Performance-approach and performance-avoidance classroom goals and the adoption of personal achievement goals: Performance classroom goals. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 81(4), 680–699. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.2044-8279.2010.02012.x DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.2044-8279.2010.02012.x

Scruggs, T. E., Mastropieri, M. A., & McDuffie, K. A. (2007). Co-Teaching in Inclusive Classrooms: A Metasynthesis of Qualitative Research. Exceptional Children, 73(4), 392–416. https://doi.org/10.1177/001440290707300401 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/001440290707300401

Skaalvik, E. M., Federici, R. A., Wigfield, A., & Tangen, T. N. (2017). Students’ perceptions of mathematics classroom goal structures: Implications for perceived task values and study behavior. Social Psychology of Education, 20(3), 543–563. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11218-017-9382-1 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11218-017-9382-1

Spörer, N., Henke, T., & Bosse, S. (2021). Is there a dark side of co-teaching? A study on the social participation of primary school students and their interactions with teachers and classmates. Learning and Instruction, 71, 101393. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.learninstruc.2020.101393 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.learninstruc.2020.101393

Steyer, R., Shanahan, M., & Partchev, I. (2000). Modeling true intraindividual change in structural equation models: The case of poverty and children’s psychosocial adjustment. In T. D. Little, K. U. Schnabel, & J. Baumert (Eds.), Modeling longitudinal and multilevel data: Practical issues, applied approaches, and specific examples (pp. 109–126). Erlbaum.

Strogilos, V., King-Sears, M. E., Tragoulia, E., Voulagka, A., & Stefanidis, A. (2023). A meta-synthesis of co-teaching students with and without disabilities. Educational Research Review, 38, 100504. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.edurev.2022.100504 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.edurev.2022.100504

Sweigart, C. A., & Landrum, T. J. (2015). The Impact of Number of Adults on Instruction: Implications for Co-Teaching. Preventing School Failure: Alternative Education for Children and Youth, 59(1), 22–29. https://doi.org/10.1080/1045988X.2014.919139 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/1045988X.2014.919139

Tapola, A., & Niemivirta, M. (2008). The role of achievement goal orientations in students’ perceptions of and preferences for classroom environment. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 78(2), 291–312. https://doi.org/10.1348/000709907X205272 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1348/000709907X205272

The jamovi project (2022). jamovi (Version 2.3) [Computer Software]. https://www.jamovi.org

Thomas, W. I., & Thomas, D. S. (1928). The child in America. Knopf.

Turner, J. C., Gray, D. L., Anderman, L. H., Dawson, H. S., & Anderman, E. M. (2013). Getting to know my teacher: Does the relation between perceived mastery goal structures and perceived teacher support change across the school year? Contemporary Educational Psychology, 38(4), 316–327. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2013.06.003 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2013.06.003

Turner, J. C., & Meyer, D. K. (2004). A Classroom Perspective on the Principle of Moderate Challenge in Mathematics. The Journal of Educational Research, 97(6), 311–318. https://doi.org/10.3200/JOER.97.6.311-318 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3200/JOER.97.6.311-318

Turner, J. C., Midgley, C., Meyer, D. K., Gheen, M., Anderman, E. M., Kang, Y., & Patrick, H. (2002). The classroom environment and students’ reports of avoidance strategies in mathematics: A multimethod study. Journal of Educational Psychology, 94(1), 88–106. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.94.1.88 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1037//0022-0663.94.1.88

Tunnell, G. B. (1977). Three dimensions of naturalness: An expanded definition of field research. Psychological Bulletin, 84(3), 426–437. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.84.3.426 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1037//0033-2909.84.3.426

Tuominen, H., Niemivirta, M., Lonka, K., & Salmela-Aro, K. (2020). Motivation across a transition: Changes in achievement goal orientations and academic well-being from elementary to secondary school. Learning and Individual Differences, 79, 101854. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lindif.2020.101854 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lindif.2020.101854

Urdan, T. (2004). Predictors of Academic Self-Handicapping and Achievement: Examining Achievement Goals, Classroom Goal Structures, and Culture. Journal of Educational Psychology, 96(2), 251–264. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.96.2.251 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.96.2.251

Urdan, T. (2010). The Challenges and Promise of Research on Classroom Goal Structures. In Handbook of Research on Schools, Schooling and Human Development. Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203874844.ch7 DOI: https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203874844.ch7

Urdan, T., & Kaplan, A. (2020). The origins, evolution, and future directions of achievement goal theory. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 61, 101862. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2020.101862 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2020.101862

Urdan, T., & Midgley, C. (2003). Changes in the perceived classroom goal structure and pattern of adaptive learning during early adolescence. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 28(4), 524–551. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0361-476X(02)00060-7 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/S0361-476X(02)00060-7

Urdan, T., & Schoenfelder, E. (2006). Classroom effects on student motivation: Goal structures, social relationships, and competence beliefs. Journal of School Psychology, 44(5), 331–349. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsp.2006.04.003 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsp.2006.04.003

Villa, R. A., Thousand, J. S., & Nevin, A. (2008). A guide to co-teaching: Practical tips for facilitating student learning (2nd ed). Corwin Press: Council for Exceptional Children.

Widaman, K. F., & Reise, S. P. (1997). Exploring the measurement invariance of psychological instruments: Applications in the substance use domain. In K. J. Bryant, M. Windle, & S. G. West (Eds.), The science of prevention: Methodological advances from alcohol and substance abuse research. (pp. 281–324). American Psychological Association. https://doi.org/10.1037/10222-009 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1037/10222-009

Wilson, G. L., & Michaels, C. A. (2006). General and Special Education Students’ Perceptions of Co-Teaching: Implications for Secondary-Level Literacy Instruction. Reading & Writing Quarterly, 22(3), 205–225. https://doi.org/10.1080/10573560500455695 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/10573560500455695

Wolters, C. A. (2004). Advancing Achievement Goal Theory: Using Goal Structures and Goal Orientations to Predict Students’ Motivation, Cognition, and Achievement. Journal of Educational Psychology, 96(2), 236–250. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.96.2.236 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.96.2.236

Won, S., Anderman, E. M., & Zimmerman, R. S. (2020). Longitudinal relations of classroom goal structures to students’ motivation and learning outcomes in health education. Journal of Educational Psychology, 112(5), 1003–1019. https://doi.org/10.1037/edu0000399 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1037/edu0000399